Chrono-stratigraphic and tectono-stratigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes

ABSTRACT

A method for performing chrono-stratigraphic interpretation of a subterranean formation. The method includes obtaining a seismic volume containing stratigraphic features of the subterranean formation deformed by structural events, performing structural restoration of the seismic volume to generate a restored seismic volume by removing deformation due to the structural events, performing a chrono-stratigraphic interpretation based on the restored seismic volume to generate chrono-stratigraphic objects each associated with a respective relative geologic age, and displaying the chrono-stratigraphic objects in a chrono-stratigraphic space according to the respective relative geologic age of each of the stratigraphic objects.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to copending U.S. patent application Ser.No. 12/845,958 (Attorney Docket No. 110.0226), filed on Jul. 29, 2010,and entitled “INTERACTIVE STRUCTURAL RESTORATION WHILE INTERPRETINGSEISMIC VOLUMES FOR STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY”, which is also assignedto the assignee of the present application, the subject matter of whichis incorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND

Operations, such as surveying, drilling, wireline testing, completions,production, planning and field analysis, are typically performed tolocate and gather valuable downhole fluids. Surveys are often performedusing acquisition methodologies, such as seismic scanners or surveyorsto generate maps of underground formations. These formations are oftenanalyzed to determine the presence of subterranean assets, such asvaluable fluids or minerals, or to determine if the formations havecharacteristics suitable for storing fluids. The subterranean assets arenot limited to hydrocarbon such as oil, throughout this document, theterms “oilfield” and “oilfield operation” may be used interchangeablywith the terms “field” and “field operation” to refer to a field havingany types of valuable fluids or minerals and field operations relatingto any of such subterranean assets.

During the field operations, data is typically collected for analysisand/or monitoring of the operations. Such data may include, forinstance, information regarding subterranean formations, equipment, andhistorical and/or other data. Data concerning the subterranean formationis collected using a variety of sources. Such formation data may bestatic or dynamic. Static data relates to, for instance, formationstructure and geological stratigraphy that define geological structuresof the subterranean formation. Dynamic data relates to, for instance,fluids flowing through the geologic structures of the subterraneanformation over time. Such static and/or dynamic data may be collected tolearn more about the formations and the valuable assets containedtherein.

The data may be used to predict downhole conditions and make decisionsconcerning field operations. Such decisions may involve well planning,well targeting, well completions, operating levels, production rates andother operations and/or operating parameters. There are usually a largenumber of variables and large quantities of data to consider inanalyzing field operations. It is, therefore, often useful to model thebehavior of the field operation to determine the desired course ofaction. During the ongoing operations, the operating parameters may beadjusted as field conditions change and new information is received.Techniques have been developed to model the behavior of various aspectsof field operations, such as geological structures, downhole reservoirs,wellbores, surface facilities, as well as other portions of the fieldoperation.

Stratigraphy is fundamental to the discipline of geology in describingthe spatial, geometrical, structural, sequential and temporalrelationships of rock units. In response to the formation of rocks inhighly variable depositional environments and with varying sedimentarycompositions, stratigraphic approaches span a wide range of disciplines,such as, litho-, bio-, chrono-, magneto-, seismic-, sequence- andchemo-stratigraphy. Generally, in early stage geological exploration;little or no information is available on sediment characteristics. Theidentification and analysis of a potential hydrocarbon reservoir is amatter of interpretation and analysis of seismic reflection data.

Seismic surveying is generally performed by imparting energy to theearth at one or more source locations, for example, by way of controlledexplosion, mechanical input etc. Return energy is then measured atsurface receiver locations at varying distances and azimuths from thesource location. The travel time of energy from source to receiver, viareflections and refractions from interfaces of subsurface strata,indicates the depth and orientation of such strata. Seismic data, ascollected via the receiver, within a volume of interest is referred toas seismic volume. A seismic volume can be displayed as seismic imagesbased on different sampling resolutions and viewing orientations as wellas subject to various different seismic amplitude processing techniquesto enhance or highlight seismic reflection patterns.

Seismic images indirectly show the distribution of material depositedover large areas. The spatial (and temporal) variability of stackingpatterns, or sequences, observed in seismic images relates todepositional environments and post-depositional processes, such aserosion and tectonic activity. During seismic interpretation, reflectionpatterns in the seismic images linking depositional environments andvertical stacking order to sequence of deposition and, thus, relativetiming, enables the geological history of the subsurface to bedeciphered and leads to the estimation of probable sedimentarycharacteristics. In this manner, a potential hydrocarbon reservoir maybe identified and analyzed based on interpretation and analysis ofseismic reflection data. However, performing seismic data interpretationover large seismic volumes can be a daunting task, particularly if donemanually.

SUMMARY

In general, in one aspect, the invention relates to a method forperforming chrono-stratigraphic interpretation of a subterraneanformation. The method includes obtaining a seismic volume comprising aplurality of stratigraphic features of the subterranean formation,wherein the plurality of stratigraphic features are deformed by aplurality of structural events, performing, using a processor of acomputer system, a structural restoration of the seismic volume togenerate a restored seismic volume by removing deformation due to theplurality of structural events, wherein the restored seismic volumecomprises a plurality of restored stratigraphic features, performing,using the processor, a chrono-stratigraphic interpretation based on therestored seismic volume to generate a plurality of chrono-stratigraphicobjects each associated with a respective relative geologic age, anddisplaying the plurality of chrono-stratigraphic objects in achrono-stratigraphic space according to the respective relative geologicage of each of the plurality of stratigraphic objects.

Other aspects of chrono-stratigraphic and tectono-statigraphicinterpretation on seismic volumes will be apparent from the followingdescription and the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The appended drawings illustrate several embodiments ofchrono-stratigraphic and tectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismicvolumes and are not to be considered limiting of its scope, forchrono-stratigraphic and tectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismicvolumes may admit to other equally effective embodiments.

FIG. 1 is a schematic view, partially in cross-section, of a fieldhaving a plurality of data acquisition tools positioned at variouslocations along the field for collecting data from the subterraneanformation, in which embodiments of chrono-stratigraphic andtectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes may beimplemented.

FIG. 2 shows a system in which one or more embodiments ofchrono-stratigraphic and tectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismicvolumes may be implemented.

FIG. 3 shows an example method for chrono-stratigraphic andtectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes in accordancewith one or more embodiments.

FIGS. 4.1-4.6 each show an example display screenshot forchrono-stratigraphic and tectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismicvolumes in accordance with one or more embodiments.

FIGS. 5.1 and 5.2 show an example workflow for chrono-stratigraphic andtectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes in accordancewith one or more embodiments.

FIG. 6 shows a computer system in which one or more embodiments ofchrono-stratigraphic and tectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismicvolumes may be implemented.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments are shown in the above-identified drawings and describedbelow. In describing the embodiments, like or identical referencenumerals are used to identify common or similar elements. The drawingsare not necessarily to scale and certain features and certain views ofthe drawings may be shown exaggerated in scale or in schematic in theinterest of clarity and conciseness.

U.S. Patent Publication No. 2004/0260476 discloses a method forautomated extraction of surface primitives from seismic data. U.S.Patent Publication No. 2008/0140319 A1 discloses a method for processingstratigraphic data including stratigraphic features such as horizonsurfaces and assigning the stratigraphic features respective relativegeologic ages. Whether performed manually or assisted by automatedmethods, correct stratigraphic interpretation can be difficult toresolve in the presence of complex geological structures caused bytectonic events.

In one or more embodiments of chrono-stratigraphic andtectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes, structuralrestoration methods are applied to the seismic volumes to remove thestructural effect (e.g., related to tectonic events) allowing improvedinterpretation of chrono-stratigraphic features. In one or moreembodiments, interpretation of such features on seismic volumes isperformed by enabling dual-domain interpretation of seismic features inthe present day depth domain and simultaneously in a structurallyrestored seismic domain. Specifically, interpretation of thechrono-stratigraphic and depositional geometry is performed onstructurally restored seismic volumes while concurrently viewing theinterpretation results in the structural domain, The concurrent analysisincreases the interpretation confidence gained by improved correlationof structural deformed events (i.e., features in seismic image) to theirpre-structurally deformed geometry.

In one or more embodiments, relative geologic age is constructed fromthe chrono-stratigraphic sorted seismic events by computing the truestratigraphic thickness between the events. For example, the thickness(in depth) may be the shortest distance between the two seismic eventsurfaces along a vector defined by the average dips of the two events.The depth thickness may then be mapped to a user-defined deposition rateto determine a relative geologic age. In one or more embodiments,chrono-stratigraphic interpreted features are displayed in thestructurally restored seismic domain based on the true stratigraphicthickness between the events.

In one or more embodiments, borehole geology is integrated in theaforementioned interpretation process to provide validation of thestructural restoration consistent with the structural dip removal on theborehole dips. Specifically, borehole stratigraphic interpretation iscorrelated to the structure-free seismic volume by associating keygeologic markers in the well log to their corresponding surfaceextracted from the seismic volume. Once calibrated in this fashion, thewell log data can be transformed from depth indexed to relative geologicage index presentation. In one or more embodiments, chrono-stratigraphicinterpreted features and well log are displayed in the structurallyrestored seismic domain correlated based on the geologic age index.

In one or more embodiments, structural deformation may be progressivelyremoved from the seismic volume, corresponding to moving back ingeologic time. The interpretation can be performed in either domain(present-day structure or structurally restored to a defined geologicevent), and the interpretation may be mapped to any other computedgeologic age or present structural age.

In one or more embodiments, horizon surfaces are sampled within arestored geological layer in the seismic volume such that the horizonsurfaces could be assigned respective relative geologic ages in amethodical and self-consistent manner to avoid conflicts between therelative geologic ages of different horizon surfaces. Typically thehorizon surfaces are seismic horizon surfaces where each surfacecorresponds to an event in the seismic data. Typically, although notnecessarily, the horizon surfaces are parallel to each other andspatially continuous. Further, the horizon surfaces correspond tointerfaces between strata, although the horizon surfaces may also beused to represent boundaries of geobodies, such as hydrocarbonreservoirs or salt bodies. More generally, the method described belowmay be used to assign relative geologic ages to stratigraphic featuressuch as horizon surfaces, geobodies, or faults. Nonetheless, in whatfollows the method is described in relation to horizon surfaces.

FIG. 1 depicts a schematic view, partially in cross section of a field(100) having data acquisition tools (e.g., seismic truck (102-1),drilling tool (102-2), wireline tool (102-3), and production tool(102-4)) positioned at various locations in the field for gathering dataof a subterranean formation (104). As shown, the data collected from thetools (102-1) through 102-4) can be used to generate data plots (108-1)through 108-4), respectively.

As shown in FIG. 1, the subterranean formation (104) includes severalgeological structures (106-1) through 106-4). As shown, the formationhas a sandstone layer (106-1), a limestone layer (106-2), a shale layer(106-3), and a sand layer (106-4). A fault line (107) extends throughthe formation. In one or more embodiments, the static data acquisitiontools are adapted to measure the formation and detect thecharacteristics of the geological structures of the formation.

As shown in FIG. 1, seismic truck (102-1) represents a survey tool thatis adapted to measure properties of the subterranean formation. Thesurvey operation is a seismic survey operation for producing soundvibrations. One such sound vibration (e.g., 186, 188, 190) generated bya source (170) reflects off a plurality of horizons (e.g., 172, 174,176) in the subterranean formation (104). Each of the sound vibrations(e.g., 186, 188, 190) are received by one or more sensors (e.g., 180,182, 184), such as geophone-receivers, situated on the earth's surface.The geophones produce electrical output signals, which may betransmitted, for example, as input data to a computer (192) on theseismic truck (102-1). Responsive to the input data, the computer (192)may generate a seismic data output.

As shown in FIG. 1, a drilling operation is depicted as being performedby drilling tools (102-2) suspended by a rig (101) and advanced into thesubterranean formations (104) to form a wellbore (103). The drillingtools (1061)) may be adapted for measuring downhole properties usinglogging-while-drilling (“LWD”) tools.

A surface unit (not shown) is used to communicate with the drillingtools (102-2) and/or offsite operations. The surface unit is capable ofcommunicating with the drilling tools (102-2) to send commands to thedrilling tools (102-2), and to receive data therefrom. The surface unitmay be provided with computer facilities for receiving, storing,processing, and/or analyzing data from the oilfield. The surface unitcollects data generated during the drilling operation and produces dataoutput which may be stored or transmitted. Computer facilities, such asthose of the surface unit, may be positioned at various locations aboutthe oilfield and/or at remote locations.

Sensors, such as gauges, may be positioned about the oilfield to collectdata relating to various oilfield operations as described previously.For example, the sensor may be positioned in one or more locations inthe drilling tools (102-2) and/or at the rig (101) to measure drillingparameters, such as weight on bit, torque on bit, pressures,temperatures, flow rates, compositions, rotary speed, and/or otherparameters of the oilfield operation.

The data gathered by the sensors may be collected by the surface unitand/or other data collection sources for analysis or other processing.The data collected by the sensors may be used alone or in combinationwith other data, The data may be collected in one or more databasesand/or transmitted on or offsite. All or select portions of the data maybe selectively used for analyzing and/or predicting oilfield operationsof the current and/or other wellbores, The data may be historical data,real time data or combinations thereof. The real time data may be usedin real time, or stored for later use. The data may also be combinedwith historical data or other inputs for further analysis. The data maybe stored in separate databases, or combined into a single database.

The collected data may be used to perform activities, such as wellboresteering. In another example, the seismic data output may be used toperform geological, geophysical, and/or reservoir engineering. In thisexample, the reservoir, wellbore, surface and/or process data may beused to perform reservoir, wellbore, geological, geophysical, or othersimulations. The data outputs from the oilfield operation may begenerated directly from the sensors, or after some preprocessing ormodeling. These data outputs may act as inputs for further analysis.

As shown in FIG. 1, data plots (108-1 through 108-4) are examples ofplots of static and/or dynamic properties that may be generated by thedata acquisition tools (102-1 through 102-4), respectively. For example,data plot (108-1) is a seismic two-way response time. In anotherexample, data plot (108-2) is core sample data measured from a coresample of the formation (104). In another example, data plot (108-3) isa logging trace. In another example, data plot (108-4) is a plot of adynamic property, the fluid flow rate over time. Those skilled in theart will appreciate that other data may also be collected, such as, butnot limited to, historical data, user inputs, economic information,other measurement data, and other parameters of interest.

While a specific subterranean formation (104) with specific geologicalstructures is depicted, it will be appreciated that the formation maycontain a variety of geological structures, Fluid, rock, water, oil,gas, and other geomaterials may also be present in various portions ofthe formation. Each of the measurement devices may be used to measureproperties of the formation and/or its underlying structures. While eachacquisition tool is shown as being in specific locations along theformation, it will be appreciated that one or more types of measurementmay be taken at one or more location across one or more fields or otherlocations for comparison and/or analysis using one or more acquisitiontools. The terms measurement device, measurement tool, acquisition tool,and/or field tools are used interchangeably in this documents based onthe context.

The data collected from various sources, such as the data acquisitiontools of FIG. 1, may then be evaluated. Typically, seismic datadisplayed in the data plot (108-1) from the data acquisition tool(102-1) is used by a geophysicist to determine characteristics of thesubterranean formation (104). Core data shown in plot (108-2) and/or logdata from the well log (108-3) is typically used by a geologist todetermine various characteristics of the geological structures of thesubterranean formation (104). Production data from the production graph(108-4) is typically used by the reservoir engineer to determine fluidflow reservoir characteristics.

FIG. 2 shows a diagram of a system (200) to perform chrono-stratigraphicand tectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes in accordancewith one or more embodiments. The system (200) includes a dual domainanalysis tool (220), a user system (240), one or more data sources(250), a field model module (260), and a structural model module (270).The dual domain analysis tool (220) includes a storage repository (230),one or more application interfaces (221), a seismic interpretationmodule (222), a structural restoration module (223), a mapping generator(224), a chrono-stratigraphic interpretation module (225), and a datarendering module (226). The user system (240) includes a processor(241), a user interface (242), and a display unit (243). Each of thesecomponents is described below. One of ordinary skill in the art willappreciate that embodiments are not limited to the configuration shownin FIG. 2.

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to interact with one or more data sources (250) using one ormore of the application interface(s) (221). The application interface(221) may be configured to receive data (e.g., field data) from a datasource (250) and/or store data in the storage repository (230). Inaddition, the application interface (221) may be configured to receivedata from the storage repository (230) and deliver the data to a datasource (250). A data source (250) may be one of a variety of sourcesproviding data associated with a field. A data source (250) may include,but is not limited to, a surface unit for collecting data from thefield, a computer, a database, a spreadsheet, a user, and a dataacquisition tool as described above with respect to FIG. 1. The datasource (250) may be configured to provide data to the applicationinterface (221) through an automated process, such as through aweb-based application, a direct feed, or some other form of automatedprocess. Optionally, the data source (250) may require manual entry ofdata by a user through a user system (240) using the applicationinterface (221).

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to interact with the structural model module (270) using oneor more of the application interfaces (221). The application interface(221) may be configured to receive data (e.g., model output) from thestructural model module (270) and/or store the data in the storagerepository (230). In addition, the application interface (221) may beconfigured to receive data from, the storage repository (230) anddeliver the data to the structural model module (270). The structuralmodel module (270) may use data, received from the dual domain analysistool (220) and/or one or more data sources (250), to generate astructural model of a field. The structural model of the field producedby the structural model module (270) may be in two or three dimensions.In one or more embodiments, the structural model is used tomathematically model (e.g., using a simulation system) geological bodieswithin a subterranean formation. For example, the structural model maydescribe the characteristics of a boundary layer between rock volumeswith different properties or between solid earth and the atmosphere orthe hydrosphere. The structural model may also describe the lithology ofdeposits, or may relate to surface morphology, age (as opposed todeposit age), or depositional environment. The surfaces in thestructural model may represent boundaries of volumes. The output of astructural model may be used to understand a subterranean formation. Thestructural model module (270) may be a device internal to the dualdomain analysis tool (220). Alternatively, the structural model module(270) may be an external device operatively connected to the dual domainanalysis tool (220). The structural model module (270) may be configuredto provide data to the application interface (221) through an automatedprocess, such as through a web-based application, a direct feed, or someother form of automated process. Optionally, the structural model module(270) may require manual entry of data by a user through the user system(240) using the application interface (221).

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to interact with the field model module (260) using one ormore of the application interfaces (221)). The application interface(221) may be configured to receive data (e.g., model output) from thefield model module (260) and/or store the data in the storage repository(230). In addition, the application interface (221) may be configured toreceive data from the storage repository (230) and deliver the data tothe field model module (260). The field model module (260) may use data,received from the dual domain analysis tool (220), to generate anoperating plan for a field based on the output of the dual domainanalysis tool (220), as described below. The field model module (260)may be a device internal to the dual domain analysis tool (220).Alternatively, the field model module (260) may be an external deviceoperatively connected to the dual domain analysis tool (220). The fieldmodel module (260) may be configured to provide data to the applicationinterface (221) through an automated process, such as through aweb-based application, a direct feed, or some other form of automatedprocess. Optionally, the field model module (260) may require manualentry of data by a user through the user system (240) using theapplication interface (221). The field model module (260) may also beconfigured to send data (e.g., model output) directly to the user system(240).

In one or more embodiments, the processor (i.e., central processing unit(CPU)) (241) of the user system (240) is configured to executeinstructions to operate the components of the user system (240) (e.g.,the user interface (242), the display unit (243)).

In one or more embodiments, the user system (240) is configured tointeract with a user using the user interface (242). The user interface(242) may be configured to receive data and/or instruction(s) from theuser. The user interface (242) may also be configured to deliverinstruction(s) to the user. In addition, the user interface (242) may beconfigured to send data and/or instructions) to, and receive data and/orinstruction(s) from, the dual domain analysis tool (220) and/or thefield model module (260). Examples of a user may include, but are notlimited to, an individual, a group, an organization, or some other legalentity. The user system (240) may be, or may contain a form of, aninternet-based communication device that is capable of communicatingwith the application interface (221) of the dual domain analysis tool(220). Alternatively, the dual domain analysis tool (220) may be part ofthe user system (240). The user system (240) may correspond to, but isnot limited to, a desktop computer with internet access, a laptopcomputer with internet access, a smart phone, and a personal digitalassistant (PDA), or other user accessible device.

In one or more embodiments, the user system (240) may include a displayunit (243). The display unit (243) may be configured to display data foruser visualization. For example, the data may include those stored inthe storage repository (230).

As shown, communication links are provided between the dual domainanalysis tool (220) and the user system (240), the data sources) (250),the structural model module (270), and the field model module (260). Acommunication link is also provided between the data source(s) (250) andthe structural model module (270), and between the user system (240) andthe field model module (260). A variety of links may be provided tofacilitate the flow of data through the system (200). For example, thecommunication links may provide for continuous, intermittent, one-way,two-way, and/or selective communication throughout the system (200). Thecommunication links may be of any type, including but not limited towired and wireless.

In one or more embodiments, a central processing unit (CPU, not shown)of the dual domain analysis tool (220) is configured to executeinstructions to operate the components of the dual domain analysis tool(220) (e.g., storage repository (230), the application interface (221),the seismic interpretation module (222), the structural restorationmodule (223), the mapping generator (224), the chrono-stratigraphicinterpretation module (225), and the data rendering module (226)). Inone or more embodiments, the memory (not shown) of the dual domainanalysis tool (220) is configured to store software instructions forinteractive structural restoration while interpreting seismic data of afield. The memory may be one of a variety of memory devices, includingbut not limited to random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM),cache memory, and flash memory. The memory may be further configured toserve as back-up storage for information stored in the storagerepository (230).

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to obtain and store field data or data generated by variouscomponents of the dual domain analysis tool (220) in the storagerepository (230). In one or more embodiments, the storage repository(230) is a persistent storage device (or set of devices) and isconfigured to receive field data from a data sources) (250), thestructural model module (270), the field model module (260), and/or froma user system (240) using the application interface (221). The storagerepository (230) is also configured to deliver data to, and receive datafrom, the seismic interpretation module (222), the structuralrestoration module (223), the mapping generator (224), thechrono-stratigraphic interpretation module (225), and/or the datarendering module (226). The storage repository (230) may be a data store(e.g., a database, a file system, one or more data structures configuredin a memory, an extensible markup language (XML) file, some other mediumfor storing data, or any suitable combination thereof), which mayinclude information (e.g., historical data, user information, fieldlocation information) related to the collection of field data for afield. The storage repository (230) may be a device internal to the dualdomain analysis tool (220). Alternatively, the storage repository (230)may be an external storage device operatively connected to the dualdomain analysis tool (220).

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to interact with the user system (240) using the applicationinterface (221). The application interface (221) may be configured toreceive data and/or instruction(s) from the user system (240). Theapplication interface (221) may also be configured to deliverinstruction(s) to the user system (240). In addition, the applicationinterface (221) may be configured to send data and/or instruction(s) to,and receive data and/or instruction(s) from, the storage repository(230), the seismic interpretation module (222), the structuralrestoration module (223), the mapping generator (224), thechrono-stratigraphic interpretation module (225), and/or the datarendering module (226).

In one or more embodiments, the data transferred between the applicationinterface (221) and the data source (250), the structural model module(270), the field model module (260), and/or the user system (240)corresponds to field data, fractures, stresses and strains, and/orvarious models of the field. In one or more embodiments, the dual domainanalysis tool (220) is configured to support various data formatsprovided by the data source(s) (250), the structural model module (270),the field model module (260), and/or the user system (240).

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to perform seismic data interpretation of a field using theseismic interpretation module (222). The seismic interpretation module(222) may be configured to receive seismic data from the applicationinterface (221) and identify geological features corresponding toseismic reflection patterns. Specifically, the seismic interpretationmodule (222) may receive a seismic data volume of the field (asgenerated by one or more of the data source(s) (250)) from theapplication interface (221). This seismic data volume may be stored inthe storage repository (230) as the seismic volume (227). The geologicalfeatures identified by the seismic interpretation module (222) mayinclude, but are not limited to, horizons, geological layers,sedimentary layers, faults, geobodies, reservoirs, etc. and stored asinterpreted seismic features (not shown) in the storage repository(230). In one or more embodiments, the interpreted seismic features maybe stored as annotations in the seismic volume (227). The identifiedgeological layers may be differentiated by geologic age, formation type,or some other suitable differentiation of layers in the field. In one ormore embodiments, layers of greater geologic age are located furtheraway from the surface than layers of lesser geologic age. The seismicinterpretation module (222) may be configured to send the identifiedgeological features to the structural model module (270) via theapplication interface (221) to be used in generating a structural model.

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to perform a structural evolution analysis of a model of afield using the structural restoration module (223). The structuralrestoration module (223) may be configured to receive a model from theapplication interface (221) and restore each of the layers of the modelin a batch process. Specifically, the structural restoration module(223) may receive a structural model of the field, as generated by thestructural model module (270), from the application interface (221). Thestructural restoration module (223) may also be configured to receivethe annotated seismic volume (227) (i.e., including the geologicalfeatures identified by the seismic interpretation module (222)) as amodel and restore each layer of the model interactively while the layeris being identified by the seismic interpretation module (222).Additional details of such restoring while interpreting techniques aredescribed in the aforementioned copending U.S. patent application Ser.No. 12/845,958 (Attorney Docket No. 110.0226), which is incorporatedherein by reference. Whether restored in a batch process orinteractively, the layers restored by the structural restoration module(223) are referred to as restored geological layers and may be stored aspart of the restored seismic volume (228) in the storage repository(230).

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to generate a 3D displacement mapping using a mappinggenerator (224). Specifically, the 3D displacement mapping removeseffects (e.g., faulting and/or folding effects) of structural events onthe seismic volume (227) and geometrically maps the geological layerinto the restored geological layers. Further, the 3D displacementmapping maps a structural domain of the seismic volume (227) into astructurally restored domain of the restored seismic volume (228). Inone or more embodiments, sampling positions in the seismic volume (227)are relocated based on the 3D displacement mapping to create thestructurally restored domain where the restored seismic volume (228) canbe displayed. Accordingly, other not yet interpreted seismic features(e.g., stratigraphic features) in the seismic volume (227) are mappedinto restored seismic features (e.g., restored stratigraphic features)in the restored seismic volume (228). In one or more embodiments, therestored seismic volume (228) corresponds to partially reconstructedversion of the seismic volume (227) if the structural restoration module(223) is configured to perform the aforementioned restoring whileinterpreting techniques.

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to perform chrono-stratigraphic interpretation based on therestored seismic volume (228) using the chrono-stratigraphicinterpretation module (225). Specifically, the chrono-stratigraphicinterpretation module (225) is configured to generatechrono-stratigraphic objects each associated with a respective relativegeologic age. Further, the chrono-stratigraphic objects are sorted basedon each respective relative geologic age for display in achrono-stratigraphic space, referred to as a 3D Wheeler space. In one ormore embodiments, the mapping generator (224) is further configured togenerate a chrono-spatial mapping between the structurally restoreddomain and the chrono-stratigraphic space based on thechrono-stratigraphic interpretation. Examples of the structural domain,structurally restored domain, the chrono-stratigraphic space, thegeological layer, the restored geological layer, and the stratigraphicfeature, the restored stratigraphic features, etc. described above areshown in FIGS. 4.1-4.6 below.

In one or more embodiments, the dual domain analysis tool (220) isconfigured to provide one or more displays (e.g., 2D display, 3Ddisplay, etc.) using the data rendering module (226) for visualizing thedata by the user during the chrono-stratigraphic interpretation. Forexample, the data may include the seismic volume (227), the restoredseismic volume (228), the geological layer, the restored geologicallayer, the stratigraphic feature, the restored stratigraphic features,etc. described above, and/or combinations thereof during theaforementioned restoring while interpreting process and/or thechrono-stratigraphic interpretation. Specifically, the data renderingmodule (226) performs rendering algorithm calculations to provide theone or more displays that may be presented, using one or morecommunication links, to a user at the display unit (243) of the usersystem (240). The data rendering module (226) may provide, either bydefault or as selected by a user, displays composed of any combinationof one or more of the structural domain, the structurally restoreddomain, and the chrono-stratigraphic space. In one or more embodiments,the data rendering module (226) is provided with mechanisms foractuating various display functions in the dual domain analysis tool(220).

The dual domain analysis tool (220) may include one or more systemcomputers, which may be implemented as a server or any conventionalcomputing system. However, those skilled in the art will appreciate thatimplementations of various technologies described herein may bepracticed in other computer system configurations, including hypertexttransfer protocol (HTTP) servers, hand-held devices, multiprocessorsystems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics,network personal computers, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and thelike.

While specific components are depicted and/or described for use in theunits and/or modules of the dual domain analysis tool (220), it will beappreciated that a variety of components with various functions may beused to provide the formatting, processing, utility and coordinationfunctions necessary to modify a magnified field model in the dual domainanalysis tool (220), The components may have combined functionalitiesand may be implemented as software, hardware, firmware, or combinationsthereof.

FIG. 3 shows an example method for chrono-stratigraphic andtectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes in accordancewith one or more embodiments. For example, the method shown in FIG. 3may be practiced using the system (200) described in reference to FIG. 2above for the field (100) described in reference to FIG. 1 above. In oneor more embodiments of the invention, one or more of the elements shownin FIG. 3 may be omitted, repeated, and/or performed in a differentorder. Accordingly, embodiments of chrono-stratigraphic andtectono-statigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes should not beconsidered limited to the specific arrangements of elements shown inFIG. 3.

Initially in Element 301, seismic data is displayed in a structuraldomain. Generally, the seismic data (e.g., seismic amplitude and two-wayresponse time) represents an interaction of seismic wave propagationwith geological layers in the subterranean formation. Deformations(e.g., faulting, folding, etc.) of geological layers caused bystructural events may create features or patterns in the seismic datareferred to as seismic events. Seismic data corresponding to a region ofinterest in the formation is referred to as a seismic volume. Thestructural domain may represent the region of interest in a time scaleor a depth scale, where each scale is convertible to the other based ona velocity model of seismic wave propagation. In one or moreembodiments, the seismic data may be sampled or interpolated for displayaccording to a grid of the structural domain. In one or moreembodiments, a seismic interpretation is performed for decipheringfeatures in the displayed seismic data to identify a portion of theseismic data as relating to a geological layer. Accordingly, the portionof the seismic data is designated as an interpreted layer. In one ormore embodiments, the interpreted layer may be included in a structuralmodel of the formation, which in turn is restored by structuralrestoration. In one or more embodiments, the interpreted layer isassociated with a particular tectonic phase of the formation. Additionaldetails of interpreting seismic data to identify the interpreted layerfor performing chrono-stratigraphic interpretation are described inreference to FIGS. 4.1-4.6 below.

In Element 302, a structural restoration is performed to remove effectsof the deformations on the interpreted layer. In one or moreembodiments, a geological layer may be restored using techniques knownto those skilled in the art. In one or more embodiments, a geologicallayer may be restored using structural restoration technique of (1)determining a layer mapping based on an effect of the deformations onthe geological layer, (2) generating a restored layer by applying thelayer mapping to the geological layer for removing the effect of thedeformations on the geological layer, (3) determining a de-compactionmapping based on a compaction effect of the geological layer on aremaining portion of the seismic data corresponding to other geologicallayers beneath the geological layer, and (4) generating de-compactedseismic data by applying the de-compaction mapping to the remainingportion of the seismic data for removing the compaction effect caused bythe geological layer.

In one or more embodiments, the structural restoration is performedthroughout the seismic volume to create a restored seismic volumecontaining seismic data (e.g., amplitudes) at sampling positionsrelocated to remove the deformations. In one or more embodiments, thestructural restoration is performed for each layer concurrently withinterpretation of remaining layers to create a partially restoredseismic volume. In one or more embodiments, the structural restorationgenerates a 3D displacement mapping that maps between the seismic volumeand the restored or partially restored seismic volume. Additionaldetails of the restored seismic volume and partially restored seismicvolume are described in reference to FIGS. 4.1-4.4 below.

In Element 303, chrono-stratigraphic interpretation is performed basedon the restored seismic volume to generate chrono-stratigraphic objectseach associated with a respective relative geologic age. With thefaulting and/or folding effects removed from the seismic volume,interpretation confidence is improved in identifying thechrono-stratigraphic objects in the restored seismic volume. Examplechrono-stratigraphic objects (referred to as horizon patches) aredescribed in reference to FIGS. 4.4-4.6 below. In one or moreembodiments, techniques for chrono-stratigraphic interpretation instructural domain of seismic volume may be extended and applied toperform chrono-stratigraphic interpretation in structurally restoreddomain of a restored seismic volume. Generally, respective relativegeologic age determined using chrono-stratigraphic interpretationtechniques known to those skilled in the art differentiates a youngerchrono-stratigraphic object from an older chrono-stratigraphic object,and vice versa, without meaningful precision of actual age differencethereof.

In Element 304, the chrono-stratigraphic objects are displayed in achrono-stratigraphic space sorted by each respective relative geologicage. Specifically, an x-axis and y-axis of the chrono-stratigraphicspace represent lateral extents of the chrono-stratigraphic objectswhile a z-axis of the chrono-stratigraphic space represents respectiverelative geologic ages of the chrono-stratigraphic objects. Generally,the seismic volume is displayed in a structural domain. In one or moreembodiments, the chrono-stratigraphic space and the structural domainare displayed simultaneously in a dual domain configuration. Accordinglyin Element 305, the chrono-stratigraphic objects displayed in thechrono-stratigraphic space and the stratigraphic features displayed inthe structural domain are correlated for validating thechrono-stratigraphic interpretation. For example, a chrono-stratigraphicobject in the chrono-stratigraphic space may be identified ascorresponding to a stratigraphic feature in the structural domain basedon input of a user viewing the dual domain display. In one or moreembodiments, the restored chrono-stratigraphic features of the restoredseismic volume are displayed in the structurally restored volume andincluded in the dual domain configuration to facilitate the correlation.For example, a chrono-stratigraphic object can be correlated to arestored stratigraphic feature based on the chrono-stratigraphicinterpretation while the restored stratigraphic feature can be furthercorrelated to a stratigraphic feature based on the aforementioned 3Ddisplacement mapping generated during the structural restoration.

In one or more embodiments, the structural restoration preserves a rockvolume between the seismic volume and the restored seismic volume, Withmore clarity in visualizing the restored seismic volume and discerningsurface boundaries in the structurally restored domain, thickness and/orlateral extents of restored stratigraphic features may be determinedwith higher confidence. In one or more embodiments, the lateral extentof a restored stratigraphic feature determined based on the structurallyrestored domain represents the lateral extent of a correspondingstratigraphic feature in the seismic volume and is used to define thelateral extent of a corresponding chrono-stratigraphic object in thechrono-stratigraphic space.

In one or more embodiments, thickness of a restored stratigraphicfeature determined based on the structurally restored domain representsthickness of a corresponding stratigraphic feature in the seismic volumeand is used to define the relative geologic age of a correspondingchrono-stratigraphic object in the chrono-stratigraphic space.Specifically, a deposition rate of a stratigraphic feature is obtained.For example, the deposition rate may be user defined, such as based onmaterial types associated with the stratigraphic feature. In anotherexample, rack materials in the geological layer containing thestratigraphic feature may be used to estimate the deposition rate. Inone or more embodiments, a difference in geologic ages of two adjacentstratigraphic features is estimated based on the thickness (i.e.,separation) therebetween and the corresponding estimated depositionrate. For example the age difference may be determined by dividing thethickness by the estimated deposition rate. Accordingly, the relativegeologic ages of stratigraphic features and correspondingchrono-stratigraphical objects are determined cumulatively, for exampleby accumulating such age differences over the sorted sequence of thechrono-stratigraphical objects. In this manner, the depths associatedwith stratigraphic features are convertible, vice versa, to relativegeologic ages of corresponding chrono-stratigraphical objects, thuscreating a chrono-spatial mapping. In one or more embodiments, the depthscale of the seismic volume is convertible, and vice versa, to arelative geologic age scale in the chrono-stratigraphical space based onthis chrono-spatial mapping. Accordingly, the relative geologic agedetermined as described above is associated with meaningful precision.Example dual domain display configurations and Additional details ofdetermining chrono-spatial mapping are described in reference to FIGS.4.3-4.6 below.

In Element 306, a seismic well tie is performed based on a boreholegeology interpretation to determine absolute geologic age of thechrono-stratigraphic objects. Specifically, a borehole is identifiedthat penetrates a portion (i.e., region of interest) of the subterraneanformation corresponding to the seismic volume. In addition, a boreholegeology interpretation of the borehole is obtained, which includes aninterpreted borehole feature such as identifiable mineral or fossiltrace. In one or more embodiments, an absolute geologic age of theinterpreted borehole feature is determined based on a corresponding coresample. For example, the absolute geologic age of the mineral or fossiltrace may be determined by core sample analysis techniques known tothose skilled in the art. In one or more embodiments, a stratigraphicfeature in the seismic volume is identified as corresponding to theinterpreted borehole feature by comparing the borehole geologyinterpretation and the seismic volume interpretation. As describedabove, a chrono-stratigraphic object in the chrono-stratigraphic spacemay be identified as corresponding to the stratigraphic feature based onthe throne-spatial mapping. Accordingly, an absolute geologic age of thechrono-stratigraphic object is determined based on the absolute geologicage of the interpreted borehole feature. Additional details of theseismic well tie are described in reference to FIGS. 4.4, 5.1, and 5.2below.

In one or more embodiments, the restored seismic volume corresponds to aportion of the seismic volume associated with a tectonic phase while thestructural events deforming the portion of the seismic volume aretectonic events within the tectonic phase. In such embodiments, therespective relative geologic age of each of the chrono-stratigraphicobjects is based on a relative geologic age scale of the tectonic phasethat can be converted to a portion of an absolute geologic age scalebased on the absolute geologic age of the interpreted borehole feature.

In Element 307, the borehole is displayed in the aforementioned dualdomain display. In one or more embodiments, the interpreted boreholefeature is displayed in the structural domain based on comparing theborehole geology interpretation and the seismic volume. In one or moreembodiments, the interpreted borehole feature is displayed in thestructurally restored domain based on at least the aforementioned 3Ddisplacement mapping. In one or more embodiments, the interpretedborehole feature is displayed in the chrono-stratigraphic space based onat least the aforementioned 3D displacement mapping and theaforementioned chrono-spatial mapping. Example screenshots of displayingthe borehole in the dual domain display are shown in FIGS. 4.4 and 5.2below.

FIG. 4.1 depicts a screenshot (410) of an example structural domaindescribed in reference to FIGS. 2 and 3 above. As shown, athree-dimensional (3D) structural model of a field (e.g., field (100)depicted in FIG. 1 above) is shown in the structural domain including anumber of geological layers (e.g., corresponding to one or more of thesandstone layer (106-1), limestone layer (106-2), shale layer (106-3),and sand layer (106-4) depicted in FIG. 1 above). In one or moreembodiments, the 3D structural model of the field is a paleo-spasticmodel, which depicts a geological object at the time of deposition. Forexample, the structural model has already been validated using thesystem and method described in reference to FIGS. 2 and 3 above. Inparticular, the structural model may have been created and validatedusing field data collected from any number of sources described inreference to FIG. 1 above, as well as using the system and methoddescribed in reference to FIGS. 2 and 3 above and, optionally incombination with any of a number of software programs or othersubterranean formation model technologies known in the art. Thestructural model in FIG. 4.1 shows three geological layers (i.e.,geological layer A (424), geological layer B (426), geological layer C(428)) of the field under the surface (430). Geological layer A (424),geological layer B (426), and geological layer C (428) may beconsecutive geological layers in the subterranean formation, Inaddition, other geological layers, not shown in FIG. 4.1, may existbetween geological layer A (424), geological layer B (426), and/orgeological layer C (428). Further, although each of the geological layerA (424), geological layer B (426), and geological layer C (428) areshown schematically without substantial thickness in the particularscale of FIG. 4.1, each layer can be shown with real thickness in otherscales (e.g., depicted as the sandstone layer (106-1), limestone layer(106-2), shale layer (106-3), or sand layer (106-4) in FIG. 1 above)with additional features (e.g., sedimentary layers) contained therein.

As can be seen, geological layer A (424), geological layer B (426), andgeological layer C (428) contain undulations designating relativeelevation within each part of the geological layers. Generally, suchundulations represent faulting and/or folding effects of geologicalevents, which may be combined with compaction effect due to gravity. Inone or more embodiments, the extent of various undulations in geologicallayers are depicted by color coding, hatching, or some other way ofdesignating relative elevation within each part of geological layers. Inthis example in FIG. 4.1, the undulations within geological layer A(424), geological layer B (426), and geological layer C (428) are shownby hatching.

Geological layer A (424) is the oldest shown geological layer in thefield because geological layer A (424) is the furthest geological layerfrom the surface (430). Geological layer B (426) is the second oldestshown geological layer in the field because geological layer B (426) isthe second furthest geological layer from the surface (430). Geologicallayer C (428) is the youngest shown geological layer in the fieldbecause geological layer C (428) is the closest geological layer to thesurface (430). When restoring the geological layers from the structuralmodel, the newest geological layer (i.e., geological layer C (428)) maybe restored initially, followed by the next youngest geological layergeological layer B (426)) and so on.

FIG. 4.2 depicts a screenshot (420) of an example structurally restoreddomain described in reference to FIGS. 2 and 3 above. As shown,geological layer A (440), which is a reconstruction (i.e., structurallyrestored version) of geological layer A (424) in FIG. 4.1 and the oldestgeological layer in the subterranean formation is shown in thestructurally restored domain. As noted above, although the geologicallayer A (440) is shown schematically without substantial thickness inthe particular scale of FIG. 4.2, the layer can be shown with realthickness in other scales (e.g., depicted as the sandstone layer(106-1), limestone layer (106-2), shale layer (106-3), or sand layer(106-4) in FIG. 1 above) with additional features (e.g., sedimentarylayers) contained therein.

As can be seen, geological layer A (440) contains significantly fewerundulations compared to geological layer A (424) in FIG. 4.1 because thefaulting and folding effects of the geological events and compactioneffects of the geological layer B (426) and geological layer C (428) arelargely removed by the restoration process. In this example in FIG. 4.2,the undulations within geological layer A (440) are shown by hatching.

In one or more embodiments, as a geological layer of the subterraneanformation in the field (e.g., geological layer A (424), geological layerB (426), or geological layer C (428) from FIG. 4.1) is restored,chrono-stratigraphic interpretation within the restored geological layermay be performed using a simultaneous viewing of the geological layer inthe structural domain and structurally restored domain depicted in FIGS.4.1 and 4.2, respectively. Example screenshots depicting thechrono-stratigraphic interpretation based on dual-domain display areshown in FIGS. 4.3-4.6 below.

In one or more embodiments, the chrono-stratigraphic interpretation isperformed after all geological layers in the seismic volume arerestored. In such embodiments, any structural restoration techniqueknown to those skilled in the art, may be used.

In one or more embodiments, the chrono-stratigraphic interpretation isperformed in a restored geological layer before other geological layersin the seismic volume are restored. In one or more embodiments, theyoungest geological layer is the first to be restored and interpreted,followed by the next youngest, and so on. FIG. 43 shows an examplescreenshot illustrating a restoring while interpreting technique.Additional details of such restoring while interpreting techniques aredescribed in the aforementioned copending U.S. patent application Ser.No. 12/845.95 g (Attorney Docket No. 110.0226), which is incorporatedherein by reference.

FIG. 4.3 depicts a screenshot (430) of an example structural domain anda screenshot (431) of an example structurally restored domainillustrating a restoring while interpreting technique. In thescreenshots (430) and (431), 3D data volumes collected in a field (e.g.,field (100) depicted in FIG. 1 above) are rotated to showcross-sectional views of seismic amplitudes with highlighted features.In one or more embodiments, the seismic amplitudes are depicted by colorcoding, hatching, or some other way of designating seismic amplitudes.In this example in FIG. 4.3, the seismic amplitudes within thescreenshots (430) and (431) are shown by hatching. For clarity, solidlines are used to highlight seismic features that are alreadyinterpreted and/or validated while dash lines are used to highlightseismic features not yet interpreted and/or validated.

As shown in the screenshot (430), solid line segments (401-1, 401-2,401-3) and solid line segments (402-1, 402-2, 402-3) representinterpreted and/or validated seismic features. Depending on the relativescales, the solid line segments may correspond to geological layer C(428) and geological layer 13 (426), respectively, or correspond to atop surface and bottom surface of geological layer B (426) as depictedin FIG. 4.1 above. In addition, dash line segments (403-1, 403-2,403-3), dash line segments (404-1, 404-2, 404-3), and dash line segments(407-1, 407-2, 407-3) represent seismic features not yet interpretedand/or validated, from which geological layer A (424) and otherstructure and stratigraphy are being interpreted and/or validated duringthe interactive structural restoration while interpreting seismicvolumes. Further as shown in screenshot (430), line segment (405) andline segment (406) each include solid and dashed portions representingfaults created by geological events where solid portions have beeninterpreted and/or validated and dash portions have not yet beeninterpreted and/or validated.

As shown in the screenshot (431), solid line segments (411-1, 411-2,411-3) and solid line segments (412-1, 412-2, 412-3), which arereconstructions (i.e., structurally restored version) of solid linesegments (401-1, 401-2, 401-3) and solid line segments (402-1, 402-2,402-3), respectively, corresponding to at least one of the two youngestgeological layers B (426) and C (428) in the subterranean formation, areshown in the structurally restored domain. As can be seen, solid linesegments (411-1, 411-2, 411-3) and solid line segments (412-1, 412-2,412-3) contain significantly fewer undulations as compared to solid linesegments (401-1, 401-2, 401-3) and solid line segments (402-1, 402-2,402-3) in screenshot (430) because the faulting and folding effects ofthe geological events and gravity induced compaction effects are largelyremoved by the restoration process.

Further as shown in screenshot (431), dash line segments (413-1, 413-2,413-3), dash line segments (414-1, 414-2, 414-3), and dash line segments(417-1, 417-2, 407-3) are de-compacted version of dash line segments(403-1, 403-2, 403-3), dash line segments (404-1, 404-2, 404-3), anddash line segments (407-1, 407-2, 407-3). Specifically, gravity inducedcompaction effects from at least one of the geological layer C (428) andgeological layer B (426) are removed in the de-compacted version duringthe structural restorations thereof. Although the faulting and foldingeffects of the geological events on dash line segments (413-1, 413-2,413-3), dash line segments (414-1, 414-2, 414-3), and dash line segments(417-1, 417-2, 407-3) are not yet removed prior to the structuralrestoration of geological layer A (424) and other structure andstratigraphy, these dash line segments contain relatively lessundulations compared to the corresponding dash line segments inscreenshot (430), and, thus, provide improved interpretation confidence.In one or more embodiments, the screenshots (430) and (431) are viewedsimultaneously during interactive structural restoration whileinterpreting seismic structure and stratigraphy. In one or moreembodiments, all or a portion of the screenshots (410), (420), (430),and (431) are viewed interchangeably and simultaneously duringinteractive structural restoration while interpreting seismic structureand stratigraphy, In one or more embodiments, the screenshot (410 ofFIG. 4.1) is superimposed with the screenshot (430) in the structuraldomain, and/or the screenshot (420 of FIG. 4.2) is superimposed with thescreenshot (431) in the structurally restored domain, where the twodomains are viewed simultaneously during interactive structuralrestoration while interpreting seismic structure and stratigraphy.

In one or more embodiments, each of the geological layer A (424),geological layer B (426), and geological layer C (428) of FIG. 4.1corresponds to a particular tectonic phase. As noted above, based on therelative scales, the aforementioned solid line segments may correspondto a top surface and bottom surface of geological layer B (426) of FIG.4.1 associated with a tectonic phase. In such depiction of FIG. 4.3,chrono-stratigraphic interpretation may be performed within the portionof seismic volume in the screenshot (431) corresponding to the restoredgeological layer B (426) and geological layer C (428) of FIG. 4.1.Concurrently, restoring while interpreting techniques may be performedwithin the portion of seismic volume in the screenshot (431)corresponding to the not yet restored geological layer A (424) of FIG.4.1. In such embodiments, the solid line segments and dashed linesegments represent coarse features in the seismic volume induced bytectonic folding and/or faulting events. Once the effects of suchtectonic folding and/or faulting events are removed by the structuralrestoration process, less visible finer features in the seismic volumeinduced by sedimentary depositions may be identified and dated by thechrono-stratigraphic interpretation with a higher interpretationconfidence. For example, sedimentary layers may not be deciphered easilyin the structural domain prior to the restoration. In one or moreembodiments, such chrono-stratigraphic interpretation is performed onetectonic phase a time.

As the restoring while interpreting process progresses, the dashed linesegments in the screenshot (430) may be converted into solid linesegments. Accordingly, at the end of the restoring while interpretingprocess, the entire screenshot (430) may include all solid line segmentsrepresenting a fully interpreted seismic volume corresponding to thepresent day subterranean formation. Correspondingly, the dashed linesegments in the screenshot (431) may be converted into solid linesegments upon being restored in the restoring while interpretingprocess. In this case, at the end of the restoring while interpretingprocess, the entire screenshot (431) includes all solid line segmentsrepresenting a fully interpreted and restored seismic volumecorresponding to the present day subterranean formation.

FIG. 4.4 depicts a screenshot (440-1) having a window (435) showing anexample structural domain and a window (432) showing an examplestructurally restored domain. In addition, FIG. 4.4 depicts a screenshot(440-2) having a window (433) essentially the same as the window (432),a window (434) showing an expanded view of a portion of the window(433), and a window (437) showing example horizon patches, as describedwith Additional details in reference to FIGS. 4.5 and 4.6 below. In thescreenshots (440-1) and (440-2), 3D data volumes collected in a field(e.g., field (100) depicted in FIG. 1 above) are rotated to showcross-sectional views of seismic amplitudes with highlighted features.In one or more embodiments, the seismic amplitudes are depicted by colorcoding, hatching, or some other way of designating seismic amplitudes.In the example of FIG. 4.4, the seismic amplitudes within thescreenshots (440-1) and (440-2) are shown by hatching. In one or moreembodiments, the seismic volume represented in the windows (432) and(433) are reconstruction of the seismic volume represented in the window(435) and is generated by structural restoration process described inreference to FIGS. 3-4.3 above. For example, the windows (435) and (432)may represent the end results of the screenshots (430) and (431) of FIG.4.4, respectively, at the end of the restoring while interpretingprocess.

As shown in FIG. 4.4, the window (435) includes a portion (436-1) of theseismic image corresponding to a geological layer (e.g., the geologicallayer A (424) depicted in FIG. 4.1 above) exhibiting faulting andfolding effects of tectonic events. In one or more embodiments, suchtectonic events characterize the tectonic phase associated with thegeological layer. In addition, the window (432) includes a portion(436-2) reconstructed from the portion (436-1) by the aforementionedstructural restoration process. As shown in the screenshots (440-1), theoriginal seismic depth volume is restored to remove one or morestructural, episodes visible in the seismic volume. For example, thestructural restoration process removes the faulting and folding effectsof tectonic events exhibited in the seismic image portion (436-1) in thewindow (435) such that the resultant seismic image portion (436-2) inthe window (432) contains relatively less undulations in comparison. Inone or more embodiments, the portions (436-1) and (436-2) may correspondto the portions (453-1) and (453-2) depicted in the screenshots (430)and (431), respectively.

In one or more embodiments, the aforementioned structural restorationprocess is performed consistently with the interpretation of structuralzones and structural dip removal on the borehole geology interpretationfor wells within the study area. Additional details of well controlbased on borehole geology interpretation are described in reference toFIG. 4.5 below. In one or more embodiments, the structural restorationprocess is performed without well control if such information isunavailable.

Accordingly, chrono-stratigraphic interpretation may be performed forthe tectonic phase in this example structurally restored domain (alsoreferred to as structure-free domain) depicted in the window (432) withimproved interpretation confidence. Specifically, chrono-stratigraphicanalysis and additional detail of the stratigraphic geometry will beeasier to decipher from the structurally restored volume compared to theoriginal seismic volume. In particular, additional tools for thestratigraphic interpretation, such as chrono-stratigraphic sorting ofevents and 3D Wheeler views may be more effectively used due to thecorrect spatial distribution of sequence boundary surfaces identified inthe portion (436-2) of the structurally restored volume.

In one or more embodiments, the windows (435) and (432) are viewedsimultaneously during chrono-stratigraphic interpretation of thegeological layer corresponding to the seismic image portions (436-1) and(436-2). Such dual-domain interpretation methods allow the user to viewthe chrono-stratigraphic interpretation concurrently in the structurallyrestored and original structural views.

Further as shown in FIG. 4.4, the screenshot (440-2) includes the window(433) containing essentially the same view of the seismic volumedisplayed in the window (432). A portion (436-3) of the window (433)corresponds to the portion (436-2) of the window (432) is displayed inan expanded view in the window (434) showing a higher level of detail ofthe geological layer created during the aforementioned tectonic phase.In one or more embodiments as described in reference to FIG. 3 above,surface primitives may be extracted from the seismic volume and assignedrespective relative geologic ages in the structurally restored domainshown in the window (433). As noted above, the extracted surfaceprimitives are surface segments spatially continuous along the extremaof the seismic volume. Such surface segments are referred to as horizonpatches and are displayed as a chrono-stratigraphic view in the window(435) in the screenshot (440-2). The chrono-stratigraphic view isreferred to as a 3D Wheeler space.

The identification and association of key structural surfaces andsequence boundaries in relation to the chrono-stratigraphic view (435),the structurally restored version (432), (433), and (434), or theoriginal structural view (435) allow geologic age indexing of thestructural activities isolated as an elementary tectonic phase (e.g.,the tectonic phase associated with, the geological layer depicted in thewindow (434)). By repeating the process described above for each of anumber of tectonic phases, structural restoration andchrono-stratigraphic interpretation results of various tectonic phasescan then be linked to the stress computation (from geomechanicalmodeling) and the results tabulated to present the tectono-stratigraphichistory of the volume of interest (e.g., the entire volume shown in thewindow (435)). Periods of erosion and hiatus may also be identified aspart of tecto-stratigraphic history. Typically, these erosion and hiatusperiods become apparent during the structural restoration of the volume.

FIG. 4.5 depicts a screenshot (460) having a window (462) showingseismic volume in an example structural domain, a window (461) showingan example chrono-stratigraphic view of horizon patches in an examplestructure-free domain, and a geologic age indexing window (463), asdescribed in reference to FIG. 4.4 above. Throughout this document, theterms “domain” and “view window” may be used interchangeable dependingon the context. In the windows (462) and (463), 3D data volumescollected in a field (e.g., field (100) depicted in FIG. 1 above) arerotated to show perspective views of seismic amplitudes with highlightedfeatures. In one or more embodiments, the seismic amplitudes aredepicted by color coding, hatching, or some other way of designatingseismic amplitudes. In this example in FIG. 4.5, the seismic amplitudeswithin the windows (462) are shown by hatching. In one or moreembodiments, the horizon patches shown in the window (461) are generatedusing the method described in reference to FIG. 3 above. In one or moreembodiments, the horizon patches shown in the windows (462) and (463)correspond to an isolated tectonic phase. Additional details ofdetermining lateral extent of each horizon patch and separations betweenthe horizon patches are described in reference to FIG. 4.6 below.

As shown in FIG. 4.5, horizon patches can be identified and correlatedbetween the structural domain in the window (461), thechrono-stratigraphic view in the window (462), and the geologic ageindexing window (463). For example, horizon patches (464-1), (464-2),and (464-3) in the window (461) correspond to horizon patches (474-1),(474-2), and (474-3), respectively in the window (462) and correspond tohorizon line segments (424-1), (424-2), and (424-3), respectively in thewindow (463). As shown, the geologic age indexing window (463) includesa 2D cross-sectional view (466) of the chrono-stratigraphic space shownin the window (461). Accordingly, the horizon line segments (424-1),(424-2), and (424-3) represents intersections of the horizon patches(464-1), (464-2), and (464-3) with a viewing plane (469) in the window(461). In one or more embodiments, the viewing plane (469) is userrotatable around a z-axis in the window (461). Typically, the z-axis issubstantially perpendicular to the horizon patches (464-1), (464-2), and(464-3) in the window (461). Further as shown in FIG. 4.5, the geologicage indexing window (463) includes well log (465) and eustatic curve(468) (i.e. representation of the changes of the sea level throughoutthe geological history) used as geologic age markers to calibrate theassigned relative geologic age scale into absolute geologic age scale.In addition, various attributes (e.g., boundaries, base level, rate ofchange, age, etc.) of the horizon patches are shown as tracks (467) inthe geologic age indexing window (463).

FIG. 4.6 depicts 3D screenshot windows (481) and (482) corresponding tothe windows (462) and (461) shown in FIG. 4.5, respectively. As shown inFIG. 4.6, a cross-sectional view (484) of the window (482) includescurved line segments (e.g., curved line segments (491-1), (492-1), and(493-1)) corresponding to horizon patches in the window (482). Similarto the cross-sectional view described in reference to the window (435)depicted in FIG. 4.4 above, the cross-sectional view (484) has ahorizontal axis representing distance and a vertical axis representingdepth. Further, a cross-sectional view (483) of the window (481)includes line segments (e.g., line segments (491-2), (492-2), and(493-2)) corresponding to horizon patches in the window (481). Similarto the cross-sectional view (466) depicted in FIG. 4.5 above, thecross-sectional view (483) has a horizontal axis representingstructurally restored distance and a vertical axis representing relativegeologic age.

As noted above, the horizon patches depicted in the windows (481) and(482) are correlated. For example, the curved line segments (491-1),(492-1), and (493-1) correspond to the line segments (491-2), (492-2),and (493-2), respectively. As shown in the cross-sectional views (484)and (483), the curved line segments (491-1), (492-1), and (493-1) arerestored into the line segments (491-2), (492-2), and (493-2) by thestructural restoration process where corresponding curved line segmentsand line segments have the same equivalent lengths and equivalentseparations. For example, the end point (485-1) of the curved linesegment (491-1) is shown to be extended and correspond to the end point(485-2) of the line segment (491-2) such that the curved line segment(491-1) and the line segment (491-2) have the same equivalent length. Inaddition, the separation (489) between the curved line segments (492-1)and (493-1) in the depth scale is converted to the separation (490)between the line segments (492-2) and (493-2) in the relative geologicage scale based on user assigned deposition rate. In one or moreembodiments, the deposition rate is estimated based on characteristicsof the geological layer associated with the particular tectonic phase aswell as the specific sediment composition within the separation (489).Accordingly, the depth indexed separation (489) and the relativegeologic age indexed separation (490) are equivalent to each other basedon the estimated deposition rate. In one or more embodiments, in FIG.4.5, the well log (465) and the eustatic curve (468) are integrated intothe geologic age indexing view (463) based on this equivalence (i.e.,deposition rate based mapping) between the depth indexed scale andrelative geologic age indexed scale. Accordingly, specific marker eventswith known absolute geologic age within the well log (465) (e.g., basedon identifiable mineral or fossil traces that can be dated with somecertainty) and the eustatic curve (468) (i.e., based on global sea levelchanges) are used to calibrate the relative geologic age scale into theabsolute geologic age scale. For example, relative geologic age isconverted into the absolute geologic age by linking knownbio-stratigraphic markers and/or sea level trends to the same featuresin relative the geologic age scale then stretching the relative geologicage scale to match the absolute geologic scale at the known markerpositions.

FIGS. 5.1 and 5.2 show an example workflow (510) with a series ofscreenshots (596)-(598) for chrono-stratigraphic andtectono-stratigraphic interpretation on seismic volumes in accordancewith one or more embodiments. In one or more embodiments, the workflow(510) and screenshots (596)-(598) are based on the system and methoddescribed in reference to FIGS. 2 and 3 above and is applicable to thefield (100) depicted in FIG. 1 above.

As shown in FIG. 5.1, the workflow (510) begins with depth domainseismic data (511). In one or more embodiments, a relative geologic ageindexing is performed on the seismic depth volume (511) directly toestimate geologic age in areas of little or no well data based on thechrono-stratigraphy and base-level trend interpretation. Specifically,the time domain seismic data (511) is analyzed, as illustrated by box(512), to extract seismic surfaces (513) such as horizon patches. Theworkflow (510) continues with the chrono-stratigraphic sorting ofseismic events (e.g., representing the horizon patches), as illustratedby box (514), and the construction of a relative geologic age index(522). In one or more embodiments, chrono-stratigraphic sortingillustrated in box (514) is based on a 3D Wheeler space depicted in thescreenshot (597) of FIG. 5.2 that allows for the construction of a localbase-level curve. In addition, sedimentation rates are estimated fromthis interpretation to compute the thicknesses of decompacted sedimentpresent in the seismic section, as illustrated by box (515).Specifically, within the box (515), the true stratigraphic thickness iscalculated between the seismic events. The thickness (in depth) may bethe shortest distance between the two seismic event surfaces along avector defined by the average dips of the two events. This depththickness is then mapped to a user-defined deposition rate to determinea relative geologic age used in the relative geologic age index (522).

In one or more embodiments, a seismic well-tie is performed to associatekey geologic markers in the well log (e.g., borehole data (516)) tocorresponding surfaces extracted from the seismic volume, as illustratedby box (524). Specifically, the borehole data (516) may be used tocompute structural boundaries, as illustrated by box (518), forvalidating the extracted seismic surfaces (513), as illustrated by box(520). The screenshot (596) of FIG. 5.2 depicts a representation (5964)of the borehole data (516) superimposed in the seismic volumecorresponding to the seismic data (511) in a depth domain that can bereviewed when validating the extracted seismic surfaces (513). Further,the borehole data (516) may be used to compute stratigraphic thickness,as illustrated by box (519), for validating the stratigraphic thicknesscomputed in the box (515), as illustrated by box (521). Once calibratedin this fashion, the borehole data (516) can be transformed from a depthindexed representation to a relative geologic age index presentation(598-1) depicted in the screenshot (598) of FIG. 5.2. In particular, thedepth indexed representation (596-1) of the borehole data (516)superimposed in the seismic volume is converted to the geologic ageindexed representation (598-1) superimposed in the 3D Wheeler spacedepicted in the screenshot (598). A cross-sectional view of thescreenshot (598) corresponds to the well log (465) and cross-sectionalview (466) shown in geologic age indexing window (463) of FIG. 4.5above. As shown in FIG. 5.2, the screenshots (596) and (597) areschematically linked by the seismic well tie (524) in the workflow (510)to generate the screenshot (598), as illustrated by box (523) in theworkflow (510).

In one or more embodiments, the workflow (510) is performed for aportion of the seismic volume (511) identified as being within atectonic phase. In the case where the seismic volume (511) correspondsto multiple tectonic phases, the workflow (510) may be performed foreach of the tectonic phases for an expanded scope oftectono-stratigraphic interpretation. In one or more embodiments, anexample workflow for tectono-stratigraphy includes elements of (1)assigning absolute age to structural restoration surfaces/planes usingglobal eustatic curve and/or well data, as illustrated by box (517) ofFIG. 5.1; (2) assigning the interval between successive structuralrestoration surfaces/planes as elementary tectonic phase with absoluteage limits; (3) linking a type of the restoration activity (e.g. normalfault restoration) that has been carried out in each tectonic phase; (4)linking relative stress direction and magnitudes for each of thedeformation with corresponding tectonic phases; and (5) optionallyplotting results from elements (2)-(4) in a tabular format forinterpretation and modeling purposes (e.g., sedimentation studies orpetroleum systems modeling).

Embodiments of chrono-stratigraphic and tectono-statigraphicinterpretation on seismic volumes may be implemented on virtually anytype of computer regardless of the platform being used. For instance, asshown in FIG. 6, a computer system (600) includes one or moreprocessor(s) (602) such as a central processing unit (CPU) or otherhardware processor, associated memory (604) (e.g., random access memory(RAM), cache memory, flash memory, etc.), a storage device (606) (e.g.,a hard disk, an optical drive such as a compact disk drive or digitalvideo disk (DVD) drive, a flash memory stick, etc.), and numerous otherelements and functionalities typical of today's computers (not shown).The computer (600) may also include input means, such as a keyboard(608), a mouse (610), or a microphone (not shown). Further, the computer(600) may include output means, such as a monitor (612) (e.g., a liquidcrystal display LCD, a plasma display, or cathode ray tube (CRT)monitor). The computer system (600) may be connected to a network (614)(e.g., a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN) such as theInternet, or any other similar type of network) via a network interfaceconnection (not shown). Those skilled in the art will appreciate thatmany different types of computer systems exist (e.g., desktop computer,a laptop computer, or any other computing system capable of executingcomputer readable instructions), and the aforementioned input and outputmeans may take other forms, now known or later developed. Generally, thecomputer system (600) includes at least the minimal processing, input,and/or output means necessary to practice one or more embodiments.

Further, those skilled in the art will appreciate that one or moreelements of the aforementioned computer system (600) may be located at aremote location and connected to the other elements over a network.Further, one or more embodiments may be implemented on a distributedsystem having a plurality of nodes, where each portion of theimplementation (e.g., various components of the dual domain analysistool) may be located on a different node within the distributed system.In one or more embodiments, the node corresponds to a computer system.Alternatively, the node may correspond to a processor with associatedphysical memory. The node may alternatively correspond to a processorwith shared memory and/or resources. Further, software instructions toperform one or more embodiments may be stored on a computer readablestorage medium such as a compact disc (CD), a diskette, a tape, or anyother computer readable storage device.

The systems and methods provided relate to the acquisition ofhydrocarbons from an oilfield. It will be appreciated that the samesystems and methods may be used for performing subsurface operations,such as mining, water retrieval and acquisition of other undergroundfluids or other geomaterials materials from other fields. Further,portions of the systems and methods may be implemented as software,hardware, firmware, or combinations thereof.

While the invention has been described with respect to a limited numberof embodiments, those skilled in the art, having benefit of thisdisclosure, will appreciate that other embodiments may be devised whichdo not depart from the scope of the invention as disclosed herein.Accordingly, the scope of the invention should be limited only by theattached claims.

1. A method for performing chrono-stratigraphic interpretation of asubterranean formation, comprising: obtaining a seismic volumecomprising a plurality of stratigraphic features of the subterraneanformation, wherein the plurality of stratigraphic features are deformedby a plurality of structural events; performing, using a processor of acomputer system, a structural restoration of the seismic volume togenerate a restored seismic volume by removing deformation due to theplurality of structural events, wherein the restored seismic volumecomprises a plurality of restored stratigraphic features; performing,using the processor, a chrono-stratigraphic interpretation based on therestored seismic volume to generate a plurality of chrono-stratigraphicobjects each associated with a respective relative geologic age;identifying a borehole penetrating a first portion of the subterraneanformation, the first portion corresponding to the seismic volume;obtaining a borehole geology interpretation of the borehole comprisingan interpreted borehole feature; identifying a first absolute geologicage of the interpreted borehole feature based on a corresponding coresample; identifying a stratigraphic feature of the plurality ofstratigraphic features as corresponding to the interpreted boreholefeature by comparing the borehole geology interpretation and the seismicvolume; identifying a chrono-stratigraphic object of the plurality ofchrono-stratigraphic objects as corresponding to the stratigraphicfeature based on the correlation; determining a second absolute geologicage of the chrono-stratigraphic object based on the first absolutegeologic age of the interpreted borehole feature; and displaying theplurality of chrono-stratigraphic objects in a chrono-stratigraphicspace according to the respective relative geologic age of each of theplurality of stratigraphic objects. 2.-6. (canceled)
 7. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the restored seismic volume corresponds to a secondportion of the seismic volume associated with a tectonic phase, whereinthe plurality of structural events comprise tectonic events within thetectonic phase, wherein the respective relative geologic age of each ofthe plurality of chrono-stratigraphic objects is based on a relativegeologic age scale of the tectonic phase, and the method furthercomprising converting the relative geologic age scale of the tectonicphase into at least a third portion of an absolute geologic age scalebased on the first absolute geologic age of the interpreted boreholefeature.
 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising: displaying theinterpreted borehole feature in a structural domain based on comparingthe borehole geology interpretation and the seismic volume.
 9. Themethod of claim 8, further comprising: determining a 3D displacementmapping between the structural domain and a structurally restored domainbased on the structural restoration; displaying the interpreted boreholefeature in the structurally restored domain based on at least the 3Ddisplacement mapping.
 10. The method of claim 9, further comprising:determining a chrono-spatial mapping between the structurally restoreddomain and the chrono-stratigraphic space based on thechrono-stratigraphic interpretation; and displaying the interpretedborehole feature in the chrono-stratigraphic space based on at least the3D displacement mapping and the chrono-spatial mapping.
 11. A system forperforming chrono-stratigraphic interpretation of a subterraneanformation, comprising: a structural restoration module executing on aprocessor and configured to perform structural restoration of a seismicvolume to generate a restored seismic volume by removing deformation dueto a plurality of structural events, wherein the seismic volumecomprises a plurality of stratigraphic features of the subterraneanformation; a chrono-stratigraphic interpretation module executing on theprocessor and configured to perform chrono-stratigraphic interpretationbased on the restored seismic volume to generate a plurality ofchrono-stratigraphic objects each associated with a respective relativegeologic age; a display device configured to display the plurality ofchrono-stratigraphic objects in a chrono-stratigraphic space accordingto the respective relative geologic age of each of the plurality ofstratigraphic features; and memory storing instructions when executed bythe processor comprising functionality to: obtain the seismic volume,identify a borehole penetrating a first portion of the subterraneanformation, the first portion corresponding to the seismic volume, obtainborehole geology interpretation of the borehole comprising aninterpreted borehole feature, identify a first absolute geologic age ofthe interpreted borehole feature based on a corresponding core sample,identify a stratigraphic feature of the plurality of stratigraphicfeatures as corresponding to the interpreted borehole feature bycomparing the borehole geology interpretation and the seismic volume,identify a chrono-stratigraphic object of the plurality ofchrono-stratigraphic objects as corresponding to the stratigraphicfeature based on the correlation, and determine a second absolutegeologic age of the chrono-stratigraphic object to the first absolutegeologic age of the interpreted borehole feature. 12.-16. (canceled) 17.The system of claim 11, further comprising: a mapping generatorexecuting on the processor and configured to: determine a 3Ddisplacement mapping between a structural domain and a structurallyrestored domain based on the structural restoration; and determine achrono-spatial mapping between the structurally restored domain and thechrono-stratigraphic space based on the chrono-stratigraphicinterpretation; and a data rendering module executing on the processorand configured to: generate an image of the interpreted borehole featurein the structural domain based on comparing the borehole geologyinterpretation and the seismic volume; generate an image of theinterpreted borehole feature in the structurally restored domain basedon at least the 3D displacement mapping; and generate an image of theinterpreted borehole feature in the chrono-stratigraphic space based onat least the 3D displacement mapping and the chrono-spatial mapping,wherein the display device is further configured to: display theinterpreted borehole feature in the structural domain; display theinterpreted borehole feature in the structurally restored domain; anddisplay the interpreted borehole feature in the chrono-stratigraphicspace.
 18. The system of claim 11, wherein the restored seismic volumecorresponds to a second portion of the seismic volume associated with atectonic phase, wherein the plurality of structural events comprisetectonic events within the tectonic phase, wherein the respectiverelative geologic age of each of the plurality of chrono-stratigraphicobjects is based on a relative geologic age scale of the tectonic phase,and the instructions when executed by the processor further comprisingfunctionality to convert the relative geologic age scale of the tectonicphase into at least a third portion of an absolute geologic age scalebased on the absolute geologic age of the interpreted borehole feature.19. A computer readable storage medium comprising instructions forperforming chrono-stratigraphic interpretation of a subterraneanformation, the instructions when executed for causing a processor to:obtain a seismic volume comprising a plurality of stratigraphic featuresof the subterranean formation, wherein the plurality of stratigraphicfeatures are deformed by a plurality of structural events; perform astructural restoration of the seismic volume to generate a restoredseismic volume by removing deformation due to the plurality ofstructural events, wherein the restored seismic volume comprises aplurality of restored stratigraphic features; perform achrono-stratigraphic interpretation based on the restored seismic volumeto generate a plurality of chrono-stratigraphic objects each associatedwith a respective relative geologic age; identify a borehole penetratinga first portion of the subterranean formation, the first portioncorresponding to the seismic volume; obtain a borehole geologyinterpretation of the borehole comprising an interpreted boreholefeature; identify a first absolute geologic age of the interpretedborehole feature based on a corresponding core sample; identify astratigraphic feature of the plurality of stratigraphic features ascorresponding to the interpreted borehole feature by comparing theborehole geology interpretation and the seismic volume; identify achrono-stratigraphic object of the plurality of chrono-stratigraphicobjects as corresponding to the stratigraphic feature based on thecorrelation; determine a second absolute geologic age of thechrono-stratigraphic object based on the first absolute geologic age ofthe interpreted borehole feature; and display the plurality ofchrono-stratigraphic objects in a chrono-stratigraphic space accordingto the respective relative geologic age of each of the plurality ofstratigraphic objects.
 20. (canceled)
 21. The computer readable storagemedium of claim 19, wherein the restored seismic volume corresponds to asecond portion of the seismic volume associated with a tectonic phase,wherein the plurality of structural events comprise tectonic eventswithin the tectonic phase, wherein the respective relative geologic ageof each of the plurality of chrono-stratigraphic objects is based on arelative geologic age scale of the tectonic phase, and the computerreadable storage medium further comprising instructions when executedcausing the processor to convert the relative geologic age scale of thetectonic phase into at least a third portion of an absolute geologic agescale based on the first absolute geologic age of the interpretedborehole feature.
 22. The computer readable storage medium of claim 19,further comprising instructions when executed for causing the processorto: display the interpreted borehole feature in a structural domainbased on comparing the borehole geology interpretation and the seismicvolume.
 23. The computer readable storage medium of claim 22, furthercomprising instructions when executed for causing the processor to:determine a 3D displacement mapping between the structural domain and astructurally restored domain based on the structural restoration;display the interpreted borehole feature in the structurally restoreddomain based on at least the 3D displacement mapping.
 24. The computerreadable storage medium of claim 23, further comprising instructionswhen executed for causing the processor to: determine a chrono-spatialmapping between the structurally restored domain and thechrono-stratigraphic space based on the chrono-stratigraphicinterpretation; and display the interpreted borehole feature in thechrono-stratigraphic space based on at least the 3D displacement mappingand the chrono-spatial mapping.